Method and apparatus for capacitors having engineered electrodes with very high energy density

ABSTRACT

An apparatus and associated method for an energy-storage device (e.g., a capacitor) having a plurality of electrically conducting electrodes including a first electrode and a second electrode separated by a non-electrically conducting region, and wherein the non-electrically conducting region further includes a non-uniform permittivity (K) value. In some embodiments, the method includes providing a substrate; fabricating a first electrode on the substrate; and fabricating a second electrode such that the second electrode is separated from the first electrode by a non-electrically conducting region, wherein the non-electrically conducting region has a non-uniform permittivity (K) value. The capacitor devices will find benefit for use in electric vehicles, of all kinds, uninterruptible power supplies, wind turbines, mobile phones, and the like requiring wide temperature ranges from several hundreds of degrees C. down to absolute zero, consumer electronics operating in a temperature range of −55 degrees C. to 125 degrees C.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of, and claims priority to, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/089,305 filed Apr. 18, 2011, by John P. Snyder,titled “Apparatus and method for a capacitor with engineered electrodesand position dependent permittivity for very high energy density” (whichissued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,760,846 on Jun. 24, 2014), which claimspriority benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 61/325,173 filed Apr. 16, 2010, by John P. Snyder,titled “Apparatus and method for a capacitor with engineered electrodesand position dependent permittivity for very high energy density,” bothof which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to electrical-charge-storage devices andmethods, and more particularly to apparatus and methods for capacitordevices having engineered electrodes and position dependent permittivityfor providing very high energy densities.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

At the present time there is no known good solution to the generalproblem of energy storage. A good solution is one that needs to have asmany of the following characteristics as possible:

1) High energy density per volume and per mass

2) Low cost of manufacture

3) Unlimited number of charge/discharge cycles

4) Capable of fast charge/discharge

5) Insensitivity to temperature

6) Manufactured from non-toxic, readily available materials

Li-ion batteries, and most chemical batteries, meet criteria 1) and 2)but fall short on all the others. State-of-the-art ElectrochemicalDouble Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) fall short on 1) and 2) but satisfy theremaining criteria adequately.

Li-Ion batteries have an energy density of around 400 Watt-hours/litre(W-Hr/l) while EDLCs typically have an energy density of around 10W-Hr/l. However, UltraCaps can be cycled millions if not tens ofmillions of times, whereas Li-Ion batteries can be cycled, generally, atmost 1000 times before wearing out. Further, Li-Ion batteries are lowcost as well, usually around $1 per W-Hr, whereas EDLCs currently costabout $13 per W-Hr.

FIG. 1A shows the relationship between energy density, dielectricconstant K and electric field strength E for a given capacitor. Notethat while the energy density is linear in K it goes as the square of E.To maximize energy density it is necessary to optimize the KE2 product.Energy density (energy per volume) in a conventional parallel platecapacitor is given by:

${\frac{1}{2}K\; ɛ_{0}E^{2}},$with units of Joule/m³, and where E (V/m) is the electric field, K isthe dielectric constant (K=1 for vacuum, K=3.9 for pure SiO₂), and ε₀(Farad/m) is the permittivity of free space. Note that the energydensity goes as the square of e and is only linear in K.

FIG. 1B shows that as the voltage across the plates of the capacitor isincreased electric field strength E and energy density monotonicallyrise—along with leakage currents between the plates. Leakage currentsallow the capacitor to discharge itself, leading to a reduction in‘retention time’, that is, the amount of time it takes for a capacitorto lose a certain fraction of its initial charge. As a practical matterleakage currents place an upper limit on the KE2 product. For a givencapacitor, the maximum applied voltage (and therefore the E-field andthe energy density) is limited by leakage currents between the plates.Increased leakage currents lead to reduced retention time (e.g., time tolose 10% of stored energy). Thus there is a tradeoff between energydensity and retention time. The higher the former (i.e., the energydensity) the lower the latter (i.e., retention time). The magnitude ofleakage will be dependent on the choice of materials used to constructthe capacitor (including the electrodes and the dielectric fill), aswell as its structural architecture.

As the importance of and demand for energy storage continues toincrease, there is a need for an energy storage technology that has thecharacteristics described above.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An apparatus and associated method for an energy-storage device (e.g., acapacitor) having a plurality of electrically conducting electrodesincluding a first electrode and a second electrode separated by anon-electrically conducting region, and wherein the non-electricallyconducting region further includes a non-uniform permittivity (K) value.In some embodiments, the method includes providing a substrate;fabricating a first electrode on the substrate; and fabricating a secondelectrode such that the second electrode is separated from the firstelectrode by a non-electrically conducting region, wherein thenon-electrically conducting region has a non-uniform permittivity (K)value. The capacitor devices will find benefit for use in electricvehicles, of all kinds, uninterruptible power supplies, wind turbines,mobile phones, and the like requiring wide temperature ranges fromseveral hundreds of degrees C. down to absolute zero, consumerelectronics operating in a temperature range of −55 degrees C. to 125degrees C.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of a prior art capacitor 101.

FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram of a prior art capacitor 102.

FIG. 2 is a graph 201 of the energy density in a capacitor gap(W-Hr/liter) as a function of the electric field in the capacitor gapfor gap materials with a variety of dielectric constants (i.e., K).

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor301, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor401, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a cathode of a conventional capacitor501 and the corresponding energy-band diagram.

FIG. 6A is a cathode of a ultra-high energy-density capacitor 601 andthe corresponding energy band diagram of a high-K thin-film dielectricon a metal in a vacuum, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 6B is a cathode of a ultra-high energy-density capacitor 602 andthe corresponding energy band diagram of a high-K thin-film dielectricon multiple high-K thin-film dielectric layers on a metal in a vacuum,according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 7 is a graph 701 of the electron emission current for a metalliccathode having a 3 nm thick dielectric film as a function of electricfield strength for various dielectric constants, according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor801, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 9 is a table 901 comparing the energy density in Watt-Hours perLiter for various energy storage technologies, according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a capacitor die map 1001, according tosome embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a material layer structure 1101 for anultra-high energy density capacitor, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention.

FIG. 12A is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1201, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 12B is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1202, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 13 is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high-energy-densitycapacitor 1301, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 14A is a schematic diagram of capacitor die layout 1401, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 14B is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high-energy-densitycapacitor 1402, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 15A is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1501, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 15B is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1502, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 16 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1601, according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 17 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor assembly 1701, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 18 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor assembly 1801, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 19 is a schematic drawing of an apparatus 1901 having anenergy-storage device 1930 electrically coupled to a circuit 1920 withina housing 1910, according to according to some embodiments of thepresent invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Although the following detailed description contains many specifics forthe purpose of illustration, a person of ordinary skill in the art willappreciate that many variations and alterations to the following detailsare within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the followingpreferred embodiments of the invention are set forth without any loss ofgenerality to, and without imposing limitations upon the claimedinvention. Further, in the following detailed description of thepreferred embodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawingsthat form a part hereof, and in which are shown by way of illustrationspecific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. It isunderstood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changesmay be made without departing from the scope of the present invention.

The leading digit(s) of reference numbers appearing in the Figuresgenerally corresponds to the Figure number in which that component isfirst introduced, such that the same reference number is used throughoutto refer to an identical component that appears in multiple figures.Signals and connections may be referred to by the same reference numberor label, and the actual meaning will be clear from its use in thecontext of the description.

The maximum energy density for a conventional capacitor using adielectric fill between the capacitor plates is provided by afundamental relationship that exists between a material's dielectricconstant and the maximum electric field that a material can withstandbefore it begins to experience severe leakage, or even breakdown.McPherson and colleagues at Texas Instruments studied the correlationbetween breakdown voltage and dielectric constant as was discussed intheir paper, (“Trends in the Ultimate Breakdown Strength of HighDielectric-Constant Materials,” Joe W. McPherson, Jinyoung Kim, AjitShanware, Homi Mogul, and John Rodriguez, IEEE Trans Electron Devices,50, 1771 (2003). These authors developed a thermo-chemical model fordielectric breakdown based on the enthalpy of activation needed torupture, or permanently distort the polar bond in a dielectric material.The thermo-chemical model allows the breakdown voltage for anymetal-oxide dielectric to be scaled against the known E_(bd) of anotheroxide. SiO₂ was chosen as the reference material because of the largebody of literature related to this dielectric. Their model isdeterministic in the sense that all parameters other than E_(bd) of SiO₂are physical parameters, i.e. local coordination number, melting point,and dielectric constant. The model predicts that the breakdown fieldwill have an inverse relationship to the dielectric constant K with thebest fit to a range of dielectric oxides given by E_(bd)=35 K^(−0.64).

McPherson and colleagues also studied dielectric breakdown for fourdielectrics (SiO₂, HfSiON, Ta₂O₃, and PZT) under identical testconditions using time-dependent dielectric breakdown methods. This setof dielectrics ranges in K from 3.9 to 250. The empirical relationshipbetween E_(bd) and K for these four materials is given by E_(bd)=29.9K^(−0.65).

This result is in good agreement with the thermo-chemical model andprovides confidence that the general relationship between breakdownfield and dielectric constant can be used to evaluate the high-energydensity limit of various dielectrics in a parallel-plate capacitorstructure.

FIG. 2 is a graph 201 of the energy density in a capacitor gap(W-Hr/liter) as a function of the electric field in the capacitor gapfor gap materials with a variety of dielectric constants (i.e., K). FIG.2 shows the relationship between the applied electric field and theenergy density (energy/volume) stored in the capacitor gap (1/2 K ε₀E²). Higher K value dielectrics allow greater energy density to beachieved at low fields, but the ultimate limit of high energy densityincreases with decreasing K due to the inverse relationship betweenE_(bd) and K as described above. The ultimate energy density limit forconventional, dielectric filled capacitors having dielectrics withdielectric constants (i.e., K's) ranging from 20,000 (e.g., doped bariumtitanate) down to 3.9 (e.g., SiO₂) is indicated by the solid line 209 inFIG. 2.

In FIG. 2, the energy density (J/m³) for a parallel-plate capacitor as afunction of electric field E(V/m) is energy-density=ε₀KE²/2. Theequation for the dielectric breakdown limit (i.e., the solid line 209),E_(bd)=35K^(−0.64) is the thermo-chemical fit given by McPherson, etal., described above. The point for EEStor's energy density is derivedfrom information given on the company's website and the value is ˜1000×higher than the expected fundamental material limit.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides electric fields inthe capacitor gap, and therefore energy densities, comparable with andeven superior to those of lithium-ion battery technology and hydrocarbonenergy storage.

As shown in FIG. 2, the highest energy density for a parallel platecapacitor with a dielectric medium is for a high-quality, low-kdielectric, like SiO₂, operating at the highest possible electric fieldthat is below the dielectric breakdown field. At the breakdown fieldlimit for SiO₂, ˜1.5×10⁹ V/m, the maximum energy density in thecapacitor gap is ˜4×10⁷ J/m³, or units comparable to batteryspecifications, (i.e., ˜10 W-Hr/liter). This is comparable to existingElectrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC) Ultracaps and a factor of40-45× less than the capability of current lithium-ion batterytechnology.

Because the ultimate limit to energy density in a parallel platecapacitor is determined by the breakdown of the dielectric medium atvery high electric fields, in some embodiments, the present inventionuses a capacitor structure that has no dielectric medium to breakdown,that is, a vacuum gap capacitor, to circumvent the dielectric breakdownlimitation. In some embodiments, the capacitor structure having nodielectric medium in the capacitor gap of the present invention isreferred to as a “high-K thin-film ultra-capacitor” (HKTF UltraCap). InFIG. 2 the energy density vs. electric field for a vacuum gap capacitor(K=1) is shown by the solid line 210. In some embodiments, without thelimitations of dielectric breakdown, it is possible to achieve electricfields in the capacitor gap, and therefore energy densities, comparablewith and even superior to those of lithium-ion battery technology andhydrocarbon energy storage.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor301 (i.e., HKTF UltraCap), according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. In some embodiments, the HKTF UltraCaps allows for maximumenergy storage in a capacitor (e.g., parallel-plate capacitors). Insteadof maximizing the dielectric constant and accepting the lowerlimitations on electric field and energy density the high-K mediumimposes, the present invention provides apparatus and methods in whichcapacitor structures are designed and materials are chosen to maximizeelectric field in the capacitor gap region. In some embodiments, vacuumas the dielectric, with a K value of 1.0, affords the possibility oflarger breakdown fields than can be obtained with any physical material.Because vacuum represents the absence of material, the physics ofcurrent leakage and breakdown are fundamentally different than thoseconsidered by McPherson et al., above. By understanding the leakage andbreakdown mechanisms unique to vacuum capacitors, energy densities muchgreater than predicted by the dielectric breakdown model of FIG. 2 canbe obtained.

At 1.5 e9 J/m³ (i.e., 1.5 times 10⁹ joules per cubic meter) (˜1.8 e10V/m E-field (i.e., ˜1.8 times 10¹⁰ volts per meter)), the vacuumcapacitor of the present invention will have an energy densityequivalent to or greater than a Li-Ion battery. At 7 e9 J/m³ (i.e., 7times 10⁹ joules per cubic meter) (˜4 e10 V/m E-field (i.e., ˜4 times10¹⁰ volts per meter electric field)), the energy density of the presentinvention will surpass the effective energy density of gasoline.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides energy densities andspecific energies comparable with and even superior to Li-ion batteriesat a competitive cost and retains all the compelling attributes ofstandard capacitors. In some embodiments, the present inventionminimizes leakage current, and therefore maximizes energy density, byusing vacuum between the capacitor plates instead of the conventionaldielectric fill material, and by using electrodes engineered with thininsulating films to significantly reduce leakage due to electron fieldemission.

A specific example of the vacuum capacitor of the present invention isillustrated in FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the metallic plates (312 and313) are separated by a vacuum 311 with residual gas pressure low enoughto ensure that leakage currents due to gas ionization are negligible. Insome embodiments, the anode 312 is coated with a thin film of Tungsten315 to mitigate field evaporation of anode material, while the cathode313 is coated with a very thin film 314 (˜3 nm) of a high-K dielectric(e.g., TiO₂ K=˜50) to suppress electron field emission from theconduction band of the metal cathode 313. Voltage source 99 is used tocharge capacitor 301.

In some embodiments, such as shown in FIG. 3, the structure of thecapacitor of the present invention is engineered so as to mitigate thefour major sources of leakage current between the plates: ionization ofresidual gas, field evaporation of material from the anode, fieldemission of electrons from the conduction band of the metallic cathode,and field emission of electrons from the valence band of the cathodedielectric.

In some embodiments, gas ionization currents are minimized by vacuumbonding the anode 312 and cathode 313 structures together so as to forma cavity. In some other embodiments, dedicated micro-Titaniumsublimation pumps and high-electric-field micro-ion pumps are integratedwith the main capacitor cavity and used to getter residual gas moleculesprior to actual use of the capacitors of interest. This technique isshown in FIG. 17 and FIG. 18 and described in more detail below.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor401, according to some embodiments of the present invention. Adescription at the atomic level of the positive and negative charge onthe anode 412 and cathode 413 respectively is given in FIG. 4. Firstprinciples calculations as well as experimental results have shown thatfield evaporation thresholds as high as 6 e10 V/m (i.e., 6 times 10¹⁰volts per meter), can be obtained for high-melting-point refractorymetals such as Tungsten and Molybdenum as described in the paper“First-Principles Study on Field Evaporation of Surface Atoms fromW(011) and Mo(011) Surfaces,” by Tomoya Ono, Surface Science, Vol. 557,Issue 1, 20 February 2005, Pages 42-46. In some embodiments, the anode412 is coated with a thin film of tungsten 315 and is capable ofwithstanding an electric-field strength of ˜1.8 e10 V/m (i.e., 1.8 times10¹⁰ volts per meter) without experiencing field evaporation of tungsten415 from the anode 412.

FIG. 4 shows an atomic view of charge on the anode 412 and the cathode413 for the capacitor of the present invention. On the anode 412,positively charged metal ion cores 98 are exposed due to the electroncloud being forced into the bulk of the metal thin-film material 415. Onthe cathode 413, the electron cloud 97 is drawn out of the high-K thinfilm 414. If the electric field strength is substantially increased(e.g., greater than ˜1.0 e11 V/m (i.e., ˜1.0 times 10¹¹ volts permeter)), significant numbers of electrons from the cathode 413 and/ormetal ions from the anode 412 will flow between the plates of thecapacitor.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a metal cathode 513 of a conventionalcapacitor 501 and the corresponding energy-band diagram. FIG. 5 showsthe energy-band diagram for a metal 513 in a vacuum 511 in an electricfield 96. As the electric field 96 increases, the slope of thetriangular energy barrier 520 increases, thereby increasing theprobability of an electron tunneling from the metal 513 into the vacuum511 and increasing the electron emission from the metal valence band.

FIG. 6A is the cathode 613 of an ultra-high energy-density capacitor 601and the corresponding energy band diagram of a high-K thin-filmdielectric 614 on a metal 613 in a vacuum 611, according to someembodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, fieldemission of electrons from the cathode 613, as depicted in FIG. 6A, caneffectively be suppressed via the use of a thin film (˜3 nm) high-Kdielectric 614. In some embodiments, K values greater than ˜20 are usedto reduce the field emission of electrons from the cathode 613. As canbe seen in the energy band diagram of FIG. 6A, the probability ofelectrons at the Fermi energy 622 in the metal 613 tunneling into thevacuum 611 outside of the metal 613 can be dramatically reduced byintroducing an energy barrier in the form of a high-K thin-filmdielectric 614.

FIG. 6A shows an energy-band diagram for electrons on the negativelycharged plate (cathode 613) of the present invention. The thin film ofhigh-K material 614 on the metallic cathode 613 acts to suppresselectron emission from the conduction band of the metal by reducing thetunneling probability from the Fermi level in the metal 613 to thevacuum 611. In some embodiments, a K value of between about ˜50 to about˜100 and a thickness of about ˜3 nm are used to reduce the emissioncurrent. Electron emission from the valence band of the dielectric willbe discussed below.

FIG. 6B is a cathode 612 of an ultra-high energy-density capacitor 602and the corresponding energy band diagram of multiple high-K thin-filmdielectric layers (614.1, 614.2, and 614.3) on a metal 613 in a vacuum611, according to some embodiments of the present invention. In someembodiments, the multiple high-K thin-film dielectric layers (614.1,614.2, and 614.3) are used to significantly reduce both the electronfield emission from the Fermi level of the metal 613 to the vacuum 611and the electron field emission from the valence bands of the multipledielectric layers (614.1, 614.2, and 614.3) to the vacuum.

FIG. 7 is a graph 701 of the electron emission current for a metalliccathode having a 3 nm thick dielectric film as a function of electricfield strength for various dielectric constants, according to someembodiments of the present invention. Current emission calculationsbased on a free-electron parabolic conduction band model in the metaland full Airy function solutions to the Schrodinger equation fordetermining tunneling probability are shown in FIG. 7. In someembodiments, the presence of a 3 nm thick dielectric film of various Kvalues can be seen to dramatically reduce the emitted current when the Kvalue is approximately 20 or higher. This result can be understood asthe inability of the electrons in the metal to find allowed energystates in the high-K thin-film dielectric and thus the electrons areunable to penetrate through the dielectric thin-film and into thevacuum.

While the plots of FIG. 7 do not address the issue of electron emissionfrom the valence band of the thin film dielectric (depicted in FIG. 6Aand FIG. 6B), studies of valence band emission of electrons from sharptips of silicon and diamond suggest that adequate valence band fieldemission thresholds on flat surface geometries with acceptable leakagecurrents can be achieved.

In some embodiments, FIG. 7 is a calculated electron emission conductionband current vs. electric field strength for a metallic cathode with a 3nm thick dielectric film of various K values (i.e., K1 in the FIG. 7).Full Airy function solutions are used in the solution of the Schrodingerequation to obtain the tunneling probabilities. In some embodiments, theemission current is substantially reduced for K values greater thanabout ˜20.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an ultra-high energy density capacitor801, according to some embodiments of the present invention. In someembodiments, capacitor 801 has a ‘K’ value of the dielectric material830 is engineered to change with position. In some embodiments thevariation in K is in a direction that is horizontal, relative to FIG. 8and is used to enhance energy-storage density. In some embodiments, thevariation in K is in a direction that is vertical relative to FIG. 8 andis used to enhance the structural integrity of capacitor 801. In someembodiments, the variation in K is both horizontal and vertical,relative to FIG. 8 in order to increase energy-storage density andstructural integrity of capacitor 801. In some other embodiments, thevariation in ‘K’ value is in multiple directions (vertical, horizontal,or other) in order to induce spatial variations in electric field in thecapacitor gap region. In some embodiments, leakage currents between theplates (812 and 813) are greatly reduced by properly engineering thedielectric material 830 to have a spatially dependent dielectricconstant, K. In some embodiments, the electrodes (812 and 813) areoptionally coated with thin films (e.g., dielectric thin films) tofurther reduce leakage currents in capacitor 801. The ‘K’ value of thedielectric material is engineered to change with position. In someembodiments the variation in K is horizontal relative to this figure(i.e., to enhance storage density). In some embodiments the variation inK is horizontal and vertical relative to this figure (i.e., to enhancestructural integrity). In some embodiments the variation in K isvertical relative to this figure. In other embodiments, the variation in‘K’ value could be in any direction (vertical, horizontal, or other).Spatial variations in K induce spatial variations in electric field.Leakage currents between the plates can be greatly reduced. Electrodesare optionally coated with thin films to further reduce leakagecurrents.

FIG. 9 is a Table 901 comparing the energy density in Watt-Hours perLiter for various energy storage technologies, according to someembodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, at anelectric-field strength of 1.25 e10 V/m (i.e., 1.25 times 10¹⁰ volts permeter), the capacitor of the present invention has an energy density ofapproximately 100 W-Hr/liter; an e-field that is achievable with anacceptable leakage current. As shown in Table 901, W-Hr/liter is ˜10×the value for existing conventional electrochemical double layercapacitors (EDLC) ultracaps. In some embodiments, higher E-fields (˜2.5e10 V/m (i.e., ˜2.5 times 10¹⁰ volts per meter) are provided, therebyallowing the capacitor of the present invention to be competitive withconventional lithium ion batteries. At an electric-field strength of1.25 E10 V/m (i.e., 1.25 times 10¹⁰ volts per meter), an energy densityof 100 W-Hr/l is achieved. This e-field is likely achievable withacceptable leakage current. 100 W-Hr/l is ˜10× the value for existingelectrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLC) ultracaps. If highere-fields (˜2.5 e10 V/m (i.e., ˜2.5 times 10¹⁰ volts per meter)) can beachieved with acceptable leakage the HKTF vacuum cap becomes competitivewith lithium ion batteries.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a capacitor die map 1001, according tosome embodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, thecapacitor die layout is ˜1 cm die on an 8 inch wafer, thereby providingapproximately ˜314 die/wafer. In some embodiments, each wafer contains asingle layer of capacitors and the final product consists of a stack ofthese layers. In some other embodiments, the present invention isintegrated with electronics, active devices or the like either on wafer,during packaging, or during product assembly. As an example, ˜1 cm dieon an 8 inch wafer will provide ˜314 die/wafer. In some embodiments,each wafer contains a single layer of capacitors, and the final productconsists of a stack of these layers. In some embodiments, the presentinvention is integrated with electronics, active devices, or the like.

FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a material layer structure 1101 for anultra-high energy density capacitor, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention. In some embodiments, starting substrate is alow-cost test-grade silicon wafer or the like. In some otherembodiments, the starting substrate is a semiconductor material, aninsulating material, or a conducting material. In some embodiments, allcapacitor layers are grown or deposited in high volume batch furnaceprocesses. In some embodiments, an SiO₂ film is used as a ‘release’layer to separate the finished capacitor structure from the startingsubstrate. In some embodiments, laser lift-off is used to separate thecapacitor structure from the starting substrate. In some embodiments,other release layers may include Si₃N₄, SiON or the like. In someembodiments, the starting substrate is a low-cost test-grade siliconwafer or the like. In some embodiments, all layers can be grown ordeposited in high volume batch furnace processes. In some embodiments,the SiO₂ film is a ‘release’ layer to separate the finished capacitorstructure from the substrate. Other release layers may include Si₃N₄,SiON or the like.

In some embodiments, material layer structure 1101 includes substrate1140, thermally grown silicon dioxide layer 1141 grown on substrate1140, silicon nitride layer 1142 grown on silicon dioxide layer 1141,in-situ phosphorus-doped LPCVD silicon 1143 grown on silicon nitridelayer 1142, and a second silicon nitride layer 1144 grown on in-situphosphorus-doped LPCVD silicon 1143. In some embodiments, silicondioxide layer 1141 is a release layer. In some embodiments, siliconnitride layer 1142, in-situ phosphorus-doped LPCVD silicon 1143, andsilicon nitride layer 1144 are the material layers that are used to formthe capacitor structure.

FIG. 12A is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1201, according to some embodiments of the present invention.FIG. 12B is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1202, according to some embodiments of the present invention.In some embodiments, each die consists of an alternating anode/cathodearray with 50 nm lines and 100 nm spaces. Other appropriate spacings,depending on the application, can be used. In some embodiments, thefirst (and only) high-resolution lithography step, probably requiring ahigh NA 248 or 193 tool. In some embodiments, a high aspect ratio Sitrench etch is provided via an ICP plasma etch tool. In someembodiments, an alternating anode/cathode structure is used. In someembodiments, corners and edges are rounded via silicon oxidation/HF etchto avoid e-field spiking. In some embodiments, end regions in bothplanview and cross-section are flared to gradually reduce e-fieldintensity.

In some embodiments, each capacitor die consists of an alternating anode1212/cathode 1213 array with 50 nm lines and 100 nm spaces. Otherappropriate spacings are used depending on the specific requirements ofthe application. In some embodiments, a first (and only) high-resolutionlithography step requires a high-NA 248 or 193 lithography tool todefine the capacitor structure. In some embodiments, a high-aspect-ratioSi trench etch via an ICP plasma etch tool is used to etch the capacitormaterial stack 1101 described above to achieve capacitor structure 1202.In some embodiments, alternating anode 1212/cathode 1213 structureinclude corners and edges that are rounded via a silicon oxidationfollowed by an HF etch to minimize and prevent E-field spiking. In someembodiments, end regions in both planview and cross-section are flaredto gradually reduce E-field intensity. The nitride support structure1242 (that remains from original silicon nitride layer 1142 after theetch) supports the base edges of each of the electrodes 1243, and theedges of the electrodes 1243 that are distal from the base edges connectto the nitride tops 1244 that remain from the original low-stress LPCVDsilicon-nitride layer 1144.

FIG. 13 is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high-energy-densitycapacitor 1301, according to some embodiments of the present invention.In some embodiments, the anode 1312 is coated with TiO₂ 1350 or somesuch other film and the cathode 1313 is coated with tungsten 1351 orsome such other film. In some embodiments, the capacitor structure issubsequently capped with a nitride 1345 or other such film having athickness of ˜2 μm using a wafer bonding technique. In some embodiments,the anode is coated with TiO₂ or some other film and the cathode iscoated with tungsten or some other film. The structure is subsequentlycapped with a nitride or other film (˜2 μm) using a wafer-bondingtechnique.

FIG. 14A is a schematic diagram of capacitor die layout 1401, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 14B is a side-viewcross-section of an ultra-high-energy-density capacitor 1402, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, theperimeter around each die is exposed and the entire film stack,including the capping nitride layer, is etched down to the underlyingoxide layer 1341. The figure shows nitride support structure 1342(remaining from original silicon nitride layer 1142) supports the baseof each of the electrodes 1343, and the edges of the electrodes that aredistal from the base edges connect to the nitride tops 1344 remainingfrom the original low-stress LPCVD silicon-nitride layer 1144. In someembodiments, HF is then used to etch approximately 90% or greater of theSiO₂ layer, leaving the SiO₂ layer only lightly attached to thesubstrate. In some embodiments, the die are then picked off thesubstrate, tested, bonded and stacked to form the final product. In someembodiments, electrical contacts to the anode and cathode are oppositefaces of the product ‘cube’ that is formed.

FIG. 15A is a side-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1501, according to some embodiments of the present invention.FIG. 15B is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1502, according to some embodiments of the present invention.In some embodiments, the present invention includes: interdigitatedline/space array, bulk of structure is doped silicon (light blue),support structure is primarily TiO₂ (black), corners and edges arerounded to avoid e-field spiking, end regions in both planview andcross-section are flared to gradually reduce e-field intensity, Si iscoated with CVD TiO₂, with 50-nm lines and 100-nm gaps, along withsufficiently large ‘w’ and ‘h’, 50% fill factor should be achievable,and the array can be expanded in the height (h) or width (w) directionsfor increased energy fill fraction.

In some embodiments, the present invention includes interdigitatedline/space array of parallel-plates, etched from a bulk materialstructure of in-situ doped silicon, a support structure 1542 primarilyis formed by silicon nitride layer 1342 (see FIG. 14B), cathodes coatedwith an insulating material 1530 (e.g., in some embodiments, TiO₂),corners and edges that are rounded to avoid E-field spiking, and endregions in both planview and cross-section are flared to graduallyreduce E-field intensity. In some embodiments, the exposed doped-Si bulkmaterial of cathodes 1540 is coated with CVD TiO₂ 1530. In someembodiments, 50 nm lines and 100 nm gaps, along with sufficiently large‘w’ and ‘h’, allows for a 50% fill factor to be achievable. In addition,in some embodiments, the capacitor interdigitated line/space array isexpanded in the height (h) or width (w) directions, or both in theheight and width directions to increase the energy fill fraction.

FIG. 16 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor 1601, according to some embodiments of the present invention.In some embodiments, the present invention includes: Only two leadsneeded for capacitor, 20 μm of SiO₂ isolation will easily sustain 10,000V. As long as leads to/from the line/space array are kept apart by atleast 20 μm of SiO₂ they can be kept electrically isolated. Typical bondpad spacing on a silicon IC is ˜80 to 100 μm. In some embodiments, thepresent invention includes: only two leads needed for capacitor, 20 μmof SiO₂ isolation will easily sustain 10,000 V. As long as leads to/fromthe line/space array are kept apart by at least 20 microns of SiO₂ theycan be kept electrically isolated. Typical bond pad spacing on a siliconIC is ˜80 to 100 μm.

FIG. 17 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor assembly 1701, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. In some embodiments, capacitor assembly 1701 includes aplurality of interdigitated line/space capacitor arrays 1740 asdescribed above to form the ultra-high energy density vacuum capacitorsintegrated inside of a vacuum cavity 1790 formed from positive conductorwall 1780, ground conductor wall 1781, and two insulating walls 1782. Inaddition, in some embodiments, capacitor assembly 1701 includesdedicated micro-Titanium sublimation pump 1717 (in some embodiments,high-electric-field micro-ion pumps are used) are integrated with themain ultra-high energy density vacuum capacitors and used to getterresidual gas molecules prior to actual use of the capacitors ofinterest.

FIG. 18 is a plan-view cross-section of an ultra-high energy densitycapacitor assembly 1801, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. In some embodiments, capacitor assembly is substantiallysimilar to capacitor assembly 1701 described above except that capacitorassembly 1801 has a modified interdigitated line/space capacitor arrays1840 to demonstrate an alternative embodiment of the present invention.

In some embodiments, the present invention will find benefit in theapproximately $100 million ultra-capacitor market (as measured in 2007with an 8% annual growth rate) and the approximately $200 millionultra-capacitor market predicted to be realized by 2014. In someembodiments, the present invention provided benefits for many markets,including, transportation (e.g., hybrid-electric vehicles), industry(e.g., Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)), consumer electronics(e.g., digital cameras and mobile phones), and the like.

In some embodiments, the vacuum capacitors of the present inventionprovide performance improvements that exceed existing ultracaps byfactors of approximately 5 to 10 and are competitive with cost, size andweight metrics.

In some embodiments, the present invention enables capacitor devicescapable of competing with conventional chemical batteries (e.g., Li-Ion,NiCd, NiMH, and the like) and impacting the approximately $8 billionchemical battery market. In some embodiments, the capacitors of thepresent invention enable a capacitor-based all-electric vehicle havingsuperior performance to gasoline-powered vehicles.

In some embodiments, the capacitor devices of the present inventionprovide the following benefits:

-   -   Very fast charging times compared to conventional batteries    -   Deliver much higher peak currents compared to conventional        batteries    -   Manufactured from silicon, tungsten, titanium dioxide, and the        like—inexpensive, non-toxic, easy to manufacture with readily        available materials    -   Very long device lifetimes (i.e., millions of charge/discharge        cycles)    -   Easily and quickly rechargeable in the field    -   Easy to use by both designers and consumers    -   Small logistical footprint due to small size, low weight, long        life, lack of special requirements for storage and transport,        and the absence of toxicity    -   Much higher energy density than existing EDLC ultracaps

In some embodiments, the capacitor devices of the present invention willfind benefit for use in electric vehicles, electric rail, electricbuses, electric forklifts, electric cranes, electric based vehicles ofall kinds, uninterruptible power supplies, dc power systems, windturbines, emergency lighting, digital cameras, mobile phones, toys,wireless remote controllers, PDAs (personal data assistants), consumerelectronics in general, all applications requiring wide temperatureranges from several hundreds of degrees c down to absolute zero,consumer electronics operating in a temperature range of −55° C. to 125°C., all energy storage applications where weight is important (e.g.,aircraft, spacecraft, land based vehicles, and the like) due to the highenergy/weight figure of merit, and all applications where high energydensity (energy/volume) is important.

In some embodiments, such as shown in FIG. 19, the present inventionprovides a first apparatus 1901 having an energy-storage device 1930that includes: a plurality of electrically conducting electrodesincluding a first electrode and a second electrode separated by anon-electrically conducting region, wherein the non-electricallyconducting region further includes a non-uniform permittivity (K) value.In some embodiments of the apparatus, the first electrode is a cathodeand the second electrode is an anode, wherein at least the cathode has acoating of dielectric that has a permittivity value of at least twenty(20). In some embodiments of the apparatus, the anode contains arefractory material that does not melt at temperatures below 1800degrees C. In some embodiments of the apparatus, said non-electricallyconducting region includes a film of dielectric material on the cathodeand a vacuum between the dielectric material on the cathode and theanode, and wherein the dielectric material has a permittivity value ofat least twenty (20). In some embodiments of the apparatus, the film ofdielectric material does not contact the anode. In some embodiments ofthe apparatus, the energy-storage device is a capacitor. In someembodiments, the first apparatus 1901 further includes a housing 1910;and an electrical circuit 1920 within the housing 1910 and electricallycoupled to the energy-storage device 1930 to use energy from theenergy-storage device to do work. In some embodiments, the firstapparatus 1901 is a vehicle. In some embodiments, the first apparatus1901 is an uninterruptible power supply.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a method formanufacturing an energy-storage device, the method including providing asubstrate; fabricating a first electrode on the substrate; andfabricating a second electrode such that the second electrode isseparated from the first electrode by a non-electrically conductingregion, wherein the non-electrically conducting region has a non-uniformpermittivity (K) value. In some embodiments of the method, thefabricating of the first electrode includes depositing cathode conductormaterial on the substrate, and coating the cathode conductor materialwith a dielectric that has a permittivity value of at least twenty (20),and wherein fabricating of the second electrode includes depositing ananode conductor material. In some embodiments of the method, the anodematerial contains a refractory material that does not melt attemperatures below 1800 degrees C. In some embodiments of the method,the fabricating of the first electrode includes depositing cathodeconductor material on the substrate, and coating the cathode conductormaterial with a dielectric that has a permittivity value of at leasttwenty (20), and the fabricating of the second electrode leaves a vacuumbetween the dielectric material on the cathode and the second electrode.In some embodiments of the method, the film of dielectric material doesnot contact the anode. In some embodiments of the method, theenergy-storage device is a capacitor. In some embodiments, the methodfurther includes: forming a housing 1910; locating an electrical circuit1920 within the housing and electrically coupling the energy-storagedevice 1930 to the circuit 1920; and using energy from theenergy-storage device 1930 to do work.

In other embodiments, the present invention provides a second apparatusthat includes: a substrate; means for fabricating a first electrode onthe substrate; and means for fabricating a second electrode such thatthe second electrode is separated from the first electrode by anon-electrically conducting region, wherein the non-electricallyconducting region has a non-uniform permittivity (K) value. In someembodiments of the second apparatus, the means for fabricating the firstelectrode includes means for depositing cathode conductor material onthe substrate, and means for coating the cathode conductor material witha dielectric that has a permittivity value of at least twenty (20), andwherein the means for fabricating of the second electrode includes meansfor depositing an anode conductor material. In some embodiments of thesecond apparatus, the anode material contains a refractory material thatdoes not melt at temperatures below 1800 degrees C. In some embodimentsof the second apparatus, the means for fabricating the first electrodeincludes means for depositing cathode conductor material on thesubstrate, and means for coating the cathode conductor material with adielectric that has a permittivity value of at least twenty (20), andthe means for fabricating the second electrode means for leaving avacuum between the dielectric material on the cathode and the secondelectrode. In some embodiments of the second apparatus, the film ofdielectric material does not contact the anode. In some embodiments ofthe second apparatus, the energy-storage device is a capacitor.

It is to be understood that the above description is intended to beillustrative, and not restrictive. Although numerous characteristics andadvantages of various embodiments as described herein have been setforth in the foregoing description, together with details of thestructure and function of various embodiments, many other embodimentsand changes to details will be apparent to those of skill in the artupon reviewing the above description. The scope of the invention should,therefore, be determined with reference to the appended claims, alongwith the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. Inthe appended claims, the terms “including” and “in which” are used asthe plain-English equivalents of the respective terms “comprising” and“wherein,” respectively. Moreover, the terms “first,” “second,” and“third,” etc., are used merely as labels, and are not intended to imposenumerical requirements on their objects.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus comprising: a capacitor thatincludes: an anode; and a cathode that has a first surface facing theanode, wherein the first surface includes a first dielectric film thathas a permittivity value of at least twenty (20), wherein the capacitormaintains a vacuum in a region that separates the anode and thedielectric coating on the cathode, and wherein the capacitor supports anoperational regime having an electric field of at least 7 times 10⁹ V/m.2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first dielectric film does notcontact the anode.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the anodecontains a refractory material that does not melt at temperatures below1800 degrees C.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: ahousing; an electrical circuit within the housing and electricallycoupled to the capacitor to use energy from the capacitor to do work. 5.The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus includes a semiconductorsubstrate, and wherein the anode and the cathode form parallel wallsextending at substantially right angles from the substrate.
 6. Theapparatus of claim 1, wherein the first dielectric film is about 3 nmthick.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first dielectric filmhas a K value of between about 50 and about
 100. 8. A method formanufacturing a capacitor, the method comprising: providing a substrate;fabricating an anode and a cathode on the substrate such that thecathode has a first surface facing the anode; coating the first surfacewith a first dielectric film that has a permittivity value of at leasttwenty (20); and maintaining a vacuum in a region that separates theanode and the dielectric coating on the cathode, wherein the capacitorsupports an operational regime having an electric field of at least 7times 10⁹ V/m.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the first dielectriccoating does not contact the anode.
 10. The method of claim 8, whereinthe anode contains a refractory material that does not melt attemperatures below 1800 degrees C.
 11. The method of claim 8, whereinthe substrate includes a semiconductor substrate, and wherein thefabricating of the anode and the cathode forms parallel walls extendingat substantially right angles from the substrate.
 12. The method ofclaim 8, further comprising: forming a housing; locating an electricalcircuit within the housing and electrically coupling the capacitor tothe circuit; and using energy from the capacitor to do work.
 13. Themethod of claim 8, wherein the coating of the first surface with thefirst dielectric film results in first dielectric film being about 3 nmthick.
 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the first dielectric film hasa K value of between about 50 and about
 100. 15. An apparatus formanufacturing a capacitor comprising: means for fabricating an anode anda cathode on a substrate such that the cathode has a first surfacefacing the anode; means for coating the first surface with a firstdielectric film that has a permittivity value of at least twenty (20);and means for maintaining a vacuum in a region that separates the anodeand the dielectric coating on the cathode, wherein the capacitorsupports an operational regime having an electric field of at least 7times 10⁹ V/m.
 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the means forfabricating the anode and the cathode and the means for coating thefirst surface with a first dielectric film form the capacitor such thatthe first dielectric coating does not contact the anode.
 17. Theapparatus of claim 15, wherein means for fabricating the anode providethe anode with a refractory material that does not melt at temperaturesbelow 1800 degrees C.
 18. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein thesubstrate includes a semiconductor substrate, and wherein the means forfabricating the anode and the cathode forms parallel walls extending atsubstantially right angles from the substrate.
 19. The apparatus ofclaim 15, further comprising: means for forming a housing; means forlocating an electrical circuit within the housing and electricallycoupling the capacitor to the circuit; and means for using energy fromthe capacitor to do work.
 20. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein themeans for coating of the first surface with the first dielectric filmresults in a 3-nm thick first dielectric film having a K value ofbetween about 50 and about 100.